One-child policy
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The one-child policy is the population =
control=20
policy (or planned birth policy) of the
The Chinese government introduced the policy in 1979 to alleviate the =
social=20
and environmental problems of China.
In February 2008 =
Chinese=20
Government official Wu Jianmin said that the one-child policy would be=20
reconsidered during the Chinese People's Political Consultative =
Conference in=20
March 2008,[3]=20
but at that time a representative of China's
Contents |
[edit]=20 Overview
The one-child policy promotes couples having only one child in rural = and=20 urban areas. However, parents of twins, triplets, etc. are given the = same=20 benefits as parents of one child.[5]
The limit has been strongly enforced in urban areas, but the actual=20
implementation varies from location to location.[6]=20
In most rural areas, families are allowed to have two children if the =
first=20
child is female or disabled.[7]=20
Second children are subject to birth=20
spacing (usually 3 or 4 years). Additional children will result in =
large=20
fines: families violating the policy are required to pay monetary =
penalties and=20
might be denied bonuses at their workplace. Children born in overseas =
countries=20
are not counted under the policy if they do not obtain
The Danshan, Sichuan Province Nonguang Village =
people Public=20
Affairs Bulletin Board in September 2005 noted that RMB 25,000 in social=20
compensation fees were owed in 2005. Thus far 11,500 RMB had been =
collected=20
leaving another 13,500 RMB to be collected.
The social fostering or maintenance fee (
The one-child policy is now enforced at the provincial =
level,=20
and enforcement varies; some provinces have relaxed the restrictions. =
Some=20
provinces and cities such as Beijing permit two =
"only child"=20
parents to have two children. Henan province, with a =
population=20
of about 100 million, does not allow this exception. Following the
Moreover, in accordance with PRC's affirmative action policies =
towards
Recently, the policy has changed because the long period of
In April 2007 a study by the = University=20 of California, Irvine, which claimed to be the first systematic = study of the=20 policy, found that it had proved "remarkably effective".[14]
[edit] =20
Population growth and fertility rate=20
reduction
With the one child policy, the fertility rate in China has fallen =
from over=20
2, to 1.7 births per woman (having already fallen from about 5 through =
the 70s).=20
[15]<=
/A>=20
(The colloquial term "births per woman" is usually formalized as the =
In total, China estimates that it has three to four hundred million =
fewer=20
people today with the one child policy than it would have had otherwise. =
Scholarly and official estimates of current overall Chinese fertility = (the=20 average number of children a woman has over a lifetime) vary over a wide = range,=20 from about 1.3 to 2.0:
- some scholars give the number 1.3 based on the national Census
- the official number is 1.6 (adjusted figure from the national = Census)=20
- the World Bank's = estimate is=20 1.9=20
- Liang Zhongtang of the Shaanxi Province = Economic=20 Research Center gives 2.0 as the estimate.
A 1999 article in Population Research, China's flagship = demographic=20 journal, stated that China's total fertility rate is probably somewhere = between=20 1.8 and 2.0.[21]<= /A>
Some also believe that the estimate of reduced population size is =
exaggerated=20
and suggest the real impact is closer to 50-60 million.[22]<=
/A>
Studies by Chinese demographers, funded in part by the UN Fund for =
Population=20
Activities, showed that combining poverty alleviation and health care =
with=20
relaxed targets for family planning was more effective at reducing =
fertility=20
than vigorous enforcement of very ambitious fertility reduction =
targets.
[edit] =20
Non-population related benefits
[edit] =20
Impact on health care and childbearing=20
attitudes
It is reported the focus of China in population control helps provide = a=20 better health service for women and a reduction in the risks of death = and injury=20 associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive = free=20 contraception and pre-natal classes. Help is provided for pregnant women = to=20 closely monitor their health. In various places in China, the government = rolled=20 out a =E2=80=98Care for Girls=E2=80=99 programme, which aims at = eliminating cultural=20 discrimination against girls in rural and underdeveloped areas through = subsidies=20 and education.[24]<= /A>
Attitudes to child-bearing are also reported to have been affected by = the one=20 child policy. Some people have accepted the policy and consider that one = child=20 is enough. A woman named Zhao Hui with a 4 year old girl was reported to = say=20 that "It wouldn't matter what my financial situation was or what the = government=20 regulations were, I'd still only want one child."[25]<= /A>=20 It is also reported that some Chinese cities, including Shanghai and Wuhan, have seen = negative=20 population growth, although some argue this may be due to a statistical = method=20 adopted.
[edit]=20 Increased savings rate
The individual savings rate has increased since the introduction of =
the One=20
Child Policy. This has been partially attributed to the policy in two =
respects.=20
First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in =
terms of=20
time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese more money with =
which to=20
invest. Second, since young Chinese can no longer rely on children to =
care for=20
them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for the =
future.
[edit] =20
Increased involvement of women in the labor=20
force
Women have traditionally been the primary caregivers for children; = however,=20 with fewer children, they have more time to invest in their careers, = increasing=20 both their personal earnings and the national GDP. However, critics of = the=20 policy have asserted that such a gain may eventually be cancelled out by = the=20 increased burden of caring for two elderly parents singlehandedly.
[edit]=20 Criticism
The OCPF policy has been criticized by human=20
rights advocacy groups, and also Western religious advocacy groups. =
They=20
generally consider that the one-child policy is against human rights of=20
reproduction. The one-child policy has also been criticized by
A second type of criticism has come from those who acknowledge the = challenges=20 stemming from China's high population growth but view the OCPF as only = one of a=20 set of alternative policies that could have achieved the same reduced = fertility=20 and population growth over a more extended period of time without some = of the=20 negative side-effects of the OCPF as it was implemented. Susan = Greenhalgh's=20 (2003) recent review of the policy-making process behind the adoption of = the=20 OCPF shows that some of these alternatives were known but not fully=20 considered.[27]<= /A>
A third type of criticism concerns exaggerated claimed effects of the =
policy=20
on the reduction in the total fertility rate. As Hasketh, Lu, and Xing =
observe:=20
"However, the policy itself is probably only partially responsible for =
the=20
reduction in the total fertility rate. The most dramatic decrease in the =
rate=20
actually occurred before the policy was imposed. Between 1970 and 1979, =
the=20
largely voluntary "late, long, few" policy, which called for later =
childbearing,=20
greater spacing between children, and fewer children, had already =
resulted in a=20
halving of the total =
fertility=20
rate, from 5.9 to 2.9. After the one-child policy was introduced, =
there was=20
a more gradual fall in the rate until 1995, and it has more or less =
stabilized=20
at approximately 1.7 since then."[28]<=
/A>=20
These researchers note further that China could have expected a =
continued=20
reduction in its fertility rate just from continued economic development =
had it=20
kept to the previous policy. For comparison, both India and China had total =
fertility=20
rates (TFR) of about 6 in 1950. India's TFR dropped much more slowly =
than=20
China's before 1990, to about 4.0, and is now 2.8.
[edit]=20 Human rights
The one-child policy is challenged over violating basic
In 2002, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman =
submit to=20
an abortion or sterilization, but it is not entirely enforced.
The Unit=
ed=20
Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) funding for this policy is heavily=20
criticized in the USA. [35]<=
/A>
Besides the extreme methods such as forced abortion adopted in the = execution=20 of one child policy, some critics also point to the possible economic = and=20 emotional costs the policy may bring to the people. A U.S. official = named Dewey=20 testified that parents who bear a second child are required to pay a = "social=20 compensation fee", which ranges from half of the local average annual = income to=20 ten times that.= [2]
[edit]=20 The "Four-Two-One" problem
As the one-child policy begins to near its next generation, one adult =
child=20
is left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and =
four=20
grandparents. This leaves the older generation with more of a dependency =
on=20
retirement funds or charity in order to have support. If personal =
savings,=20
pensions, or state welfare should fail, then the most senior citizens =
would be=20
left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbors for =
support.=20
If a child can't care for their parents and grandparents, or if that =
child can't=20
survive, the oldest generation could find itself destitute.[40]<=
/A>=20
To combat this problem, some provinces allow families where each parent =
was an=20
"only child" to have two children. In 2007, except Henan=20
province, all other provinces in PRC adopted this new adaption
Some parents may over-indulge their only-child. The media referred to = the=20 indulged children in one-child families as "little=20 emperors". Since the 1990s, some people worry this will result in a = higher=20 tendency toward poor social communication and cooperation skills among = the new=20 generation, as they have no siblings at home.
However, some 30 delegates called on the government in the
[edit]=20 Eugenic policies
The one-child policy includes eugenic regulations. =
Both=20
partners have to be rigorously tested before they marry. If one spouse =
has an=20
"unsatisfactory" physical or mental condition, ranging from dyslexia to
Stephen Mosher, the president of the Popul=
ation=20
Research Institute, cited that Han geneticists find higher rates of =
[edit] =20
Discrimination against Han Chinese
More than 90% of the population of China are Han Chinese. Most =
ethnic=20
minorities have different quotas from Han, with the quotas depending on =
whether=20
they are living in urban, rural, or remote regions. The
[edit] =20
Miscellaneous arguments against the =
policy
According to some Uyghur activists, the one-child policy allegedly = has had a=20 program that coercively sterilizes Uyghur women since = 1984.=20 According to Uyghur activist Yemlibike Fatkulin, these include mass = abortions of=20 Uyghur children and forced termination of marriages between Uyghur = people.=20 Uyghur children who are born unauthorized are denied food and shelter by = the=20 government.[53]=20 [54]<= /A>
According to the website Uygur.org, another aspect of the policy is = its=20 alleged "forced intermarriage" policy. The government has sent Chinese = girls to=20 marry Uyghur men since 1990. These Uyghur men were forcibly separated = from their=20 Uyghur wives and were forced to marry Chinese girls. Heavy fines exist = if an=20 Uyghur man attempts divorce from his Chinese wife.[53]
Steph=
en=20
Moore of the Cato Institute =
argued=20
that statism=20
caused economic, environmental and food shortage. He suggested
Stephen Mosher of the "pro-life" Population Research Institute has =
argued=20
that "Demographers have =
no=20
conception of overpopulation ... The world today could feed about 12 to =
14=20
billion people." [55]<=
/A>=20
He further claimed that China used propaganda and
[edit]=20 Rebuttal
In defense of China's policy it has been argued that translations = have=20 allowed misrepresentation of China's policy. They allege a double = standard in=20 that most Americans oppose China's eugenics program yet support abortion = of=20 mentally handicapped fetuses. Indeed, in the 1950s, the US government = permitted=20 the sterilization of alcoholics. No account is made of how China is = being=20 expected to level out its population increase in ten years while this = took 100=20 years for developed countries. China simply cannot sustain a population = of 2=20 billion and provide the standard of living that it desires.[56]<= /A>
[edit] =20
Discrimination against city =
communities
City dwellers usually have only one child per couple, peasants almost =
all=20
have 2 or more babies. The great difference of fertility rate =
1:2=20
between city dwellers and peasants is just one of the social impacts of=20
One-child policy. Urban dwellers are also economically better off =
=E2=80=94 with incomes=20
averaging three times greater than rural dwellers =E2=80=94 urban =
children are raised in=20
more favorable economic conditions than rural children. Some have also =
argued=20
that because of this the only-children in urban families end up being=20
spoiled,while the rural children often lack the necessary resources to =
be well=20
fed and educated. It sometimes leads to the enlarging gap between the =
rich and=20
poor. This is because the wealthy have only one baby with thrice the =
revenue of=20
the poor, who may have two or more babies with 1/3 of the revenue of the =
rich.=20
[57]<=
/A>
This outcome was not something that the Chinese government wanted. = Further,=20 the policy was resisted especially in rural communities. In the face of = such=20 resistance, the policy would have required more drastic measures than = the=20 Chinese government was willing to be seen using. This led to criticism = of China=20 from population advocates such as Garrett Hardin = who argued=20 China needs to more strictly enforce the one-child policy.[61]<= /A>
[edit]=20 Government corruption
Between 2000 to 2005 as many as 1,968 officials in central China's Hunan =
province have=20
been found breaching the policy according to the provincial family =
planning=20
commission. Also exposed by the commission are 21 national and local =
lawmakers,=20
24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6 senior intellectuals.[62]=20
Penalties are not enforced for violating the policy, as the spokesman =
proclaimed=20
"Three officials -- vice head of Tujia and Miao Autonomous=20
Prefecture of Xiangxi with the =
surname as=20
Peng, vice mayor of Loudi surnamed as Zhao, =
and vice=20
mayor of Chenzhou with the =
surname of=20
Lei, who were all found to have kept extramarital mistresses, -- were =
all=20
convicted for charges such as embezzlement and =
taking
[edit] =20
Side effects on female population
China, like many other Asian countries, has a long tradition of son=20 preference.[63]<= /A>=20 Many argue that the one-child policy induces many families to use = selective=20 abortion, abandon female infants, and even kill female infants under the = influence of the son preference.
The commonly accepted explanation for son preference is that sons in =
rural=20
families may be thought to be more helpful in farm work. Both rural and =
urban=20
populations have economic and traditional incentives, including =
widespread=20
remnants of Confucianism, to =
prefer=20
sons over daughters. Sons are preferred as they provide the primary =
financial=20
support for the parents in their retirement, and a son's parents =
typically are=20
better cared for than his wife's. In addition, Chinese traditionally =
view that=20
daughters, on their marriage, become primarily part of the groom's =
family.=20
Before the 1949 Liberation, a woman used to change her surname to her =
husband's=20
surname
[edit] =20
Gender-based birthrate disparity
The sex ratio at = birth=20 (between male and female births) in mainland China = reached=20 117:100 in the year 2000, substantially higher than the natural = baseline, which=20 ranges between 103:100 and 107:100. It had risen from 108:100 in 1981 -- = at the=20 boundary of the natural baseline -- to 111:100 in 1990.[64]<= /A>=20 According to a report by the State Population and Family Planning = Commission,=20 there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentially = leading to=20 social instability.[65]<= /A>=20 The correlation between the increase of sex ratio disparity = on birth=20 and the deployment of one child policy would appear to have been caused = by the=20 one-child policy.
However, other Asian regions also have higher than average ratios, =
including=20
Taiwan (110:100),=20
and South=20
Korea (108:100), which do not have a family planning policy.
In a recent paper, Emily Oster (2005) proposed a biological = explanation for=20 the gender imbalance in Asian countries, including China. Using data on = viral=20 prevalence by country as well as estimates of the effect of hepatitis on = sex=20 ratio, Oster claimed that Hepatitis B could = account=20 for up to 75% of the gender disparity in China.[68]<= /A>
However, Monica Das Gupta (2005) has shown that "whether or not =
females 'go=20
missing' is determined by the existing sex composition of the family =
into which=20
they are conceived. Girls with no older sisters have similar chances of =
survival=20
as boys. However, girls conceived in families that already have a =
daughter=20
experience steeply higher probabilities of being aborted or of dying in =
early=20
childhood. Gupta claims that cultural factors provide the overwhelming=20
explanation for the "missing" females."
The disparity in the sex ratio at birth increases dramatically after =
the=20
first birth, for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural =
baseline=20
over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority =
of=20
couples appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether it =
is a boy=20
or a girl. However, if the first child is a girl, and they are able to =
have a=20
second child, then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that =
the=20
second child is a boy. If a couple already has two or more boys, =
however, the=20
sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a feminine =
direction.
This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value = having=20 male offspring, a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance = in the=20 sexes of children often comes into play. For example, Zeng Yi et = al.=20 (1993) reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex = ratios=20 of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for high parity births in families = that=20 already had two or more boys.[71]<= /A>=20 A study by Barbara Anderson and Brian Silver (1995) found a similar = pattern=20 among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong=20 preference for girls in high parity births in families that had already = borne=20 two or more boys.[72]<= /A>
However, high sex ratios in the current population of China do not = occur only=20 in rural areas. Hasketh et al. (2005) show that the ratio is = nearly=20 identical in rural and urban areas.
[edit] =20
Chinese demographers examine gender ratio =
problem in=20
January 2006 review article
A review article "China=E2=80=99s birth Ratio at Birth: From Doubts =
About its=20
Existence to Looking for a Solution"
- "If we do pay more attention to the problem of the rising sex = ratio, still=20 the focus is on the rights of males such as the right to marry, and = ignores=20 women=E2=80=99s rights such as the right to survive, the right to = reproduce, the right=20 to health, etc. This approach inflicts even more harm on women. If = this=20 approach is taken, women will never be able to escape their subsidiary = position and their role of satisfying the desires of others. Robbing = females=20 of their right to exist [shengmingquan =E7=94=9F=E5=91=BD=E6=9D=83] is = for the sake of giving birth to=20 males =E2=80=93 that is putting the right to survive of males first. = Moreover,=20 protecting women=E2=80=99s right to exist is merely for the purpose of = provide a wife=20 to sons. A measure to ensure that a counterpart is available to ensure = that=20 male can exercise his right to marry. In both case, the male is = primary and=20 the female is subsidiary."
- "Therefore, how a researcher approaches the question of the sex = ratio at=20 birth =E2=80=93 from what point for view, considering whose rights = =E2=80=93 is critical. This=20 depends upon the values of the researcher, the humanistic orientation = of the=20 researcher and the consciousness the researcher has about gender and = gender=20 discrimination. Protecting the right to exist, the right to reproduce, = and the=20 right to health of girls should be at the very core of policy and = action=20 measures to control sex ratio at birth. That is because females are = the=20 biggest victims of the rising sex ratio. The rising sex ratio is in = fact=20 robbing females of their right to exist and completely discriminates = against=20 females."
The review article argues that a human rights perspective is = important.
- "Social controls on methods of selective reproduction are needed = not only=20 because of the higher birth ratio that results but also because = selective=20 reproduction harms the body and soul of the mother and robs unborn = infants=20 (regardless of being boy or girl) of their right to live. Selective=20 reproduction itself should be more closely regulated and brought under = control."
- "Even aside from the question of the rising sex ratio at birth, we = should=20 also intervene against and oppose elective abortion. Elective abortion = robs=20 unborn female infants of their right to live and their right to exist, = accentuates the social custom of favoring males over females. Not only = does it=20 harm women=E2=80=99s bodies it also reduces women to the role of a = mere tool for=20 reproduction. Women bodies and spirits are suffering grievous wounds.=20 Therefore no matter what the results of an elective abortion might be, = we=20 should intervene against and oppose elective abortion. The rise of the = sex=20 ratio at birth is only one among several reasons for intervening on = selective=20 reproduction."
While these views are not mainstream or government policy in China, = that they=20 could appear in the lead demography journal is intriguing.
The authors of another review article "Girl Survival in China: =
History,=20
Present Situation and Prospects" presented at a 2005 conference =
supported by the=20
United Nations Fund for Population Activities UNFPA concluded that =
"The Chinese=20
government has already set the goal of achieving a normal gender ratio =
at birth=20
by 2010, and to achieve preliminary results in establishing a new =
cultural=20
outlook on marriage and having children. The government is working to =
change the=20
system, way of thinking and other obstacles to attacking the root of the =
problem. Only if equality of males and females is strongly promoted ... =
will the=20
harmonious and sustainable development of society be possible."
[edit] =20
Abandoned or orphaned children and =
adoption
Rural Sichuan roadside sign: =
"It is=20
forbidden to discriminate against, mistreat or abandon baby=20
girls."
The social pressure exerted by the one-child policy has affected the =
rate at=20
which parents abandon undesirable children, and many live in =
state-sponsored=20
orphanages, from which thousands are adopted internationally and by =
Chinese=20
parents each year. In the 1980s and early 1990s, poor care and high =
mortality=20
rates in some state institutions generated intense international =
pressure for=20
reform.[75]<=
/A>=20
In the years that followed, adoption rates climbed dramatically, =
increasing to=20
the U.S. alone from about 200 in 1992 to more than 7,900 in 2005.
The practice of adopting out unwanted girls is consistent with both = the son=20 preference of many Chinese couples and the findings of Zeng Yi et al. = (1993) and=20 Anderson and Silver (1995) that under some circumstances families have a = preference for girls, in particular when they have already satisfied = their goals=20 for sons. Recent research by Weiguo Zhang (2006) on child adoption in = rural=20 China also reveals increasing receptivity to adopting girls, including = by=20 infertile and childless couples.[78]<= /A>
[edit]=20 Infanticide
It is unknown how common infanticide is in =
China,=20
though government officials state that it is "rare". There are accounts =
of=20
parents killing their female infants in remote and rural areas due to =
many=20
reasons. These include families not being able to support all their =
children,=20
parents not wanting to be looked down on or laughed at (women who do not =
give=20
birth to a boy may be considered "bad" at birthing), and the wife =
wanting to=20
prevent their husbands from marrying other women, including concubines.=20
Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California-Davis =
and=20
Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have claimed that infanticide was fairly =
common=20
in China before the 1990s and the widespread availability of
Gender-selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in =
China.=20
Despite the Chinese legal position, the US State Department,[80]<=
/A>=20
the Parliament of the United Kingdom,
[edit] =20
The desire for children, fertility medicines, =
and family=20
planning
Along with the political and economic constraints on having children = in=20 China, many people face medical problems as they seek to have children.=20 Advertisements for fertility clinics appear frequently in the PRC media. = Some=20 pray for a child while others turn to fertility clinics. China Daily = recently=20 reported that wealthy couples are increasingly turning to fertility = medicines to=20 have multiple = births, due to=20 the lack of penalties against couples who have more than one child in = their=20 first birth. The report quoted a doctor from a main pediatric hospital = as saying=20 that dozens more multiple births were recorded in 2005.[83]<= /A>
[edit] =20
Children born outside of China
In the Summer of 2006, new documents came to light indicating that =
Chinese=20
nationals with children born abroad will be treated the same as Chinese=20
nationals with Chinese-born children. This evidence has led the United =
States=20
Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit to remand a litany of cases =
involving=20
Chinese nationals seeking political =
asylum back=20
to the Board of Immigration Appeals.
In August 2007, the Board of Immigration Appeals ruled that the new=20 documents, even assuming that they are genuine, reflect only "general = birth=20 planning policies [...] that do not specifically show any likelihood = that [...]=20 Chinese nationals will be persecuted as a result of the birth of a = second child=20 in the United States." [85]<= /A>
[edit]=20 See also
- Demography=20 of the People's Republic of China=20
- Human=20 rights in the People's Republic of China=20
- Family = planning=20
- Reproductive = Health=20
- Only=20 child
[edit]=20 References
- ^=20
[Pascal Rocha da Silva, La politique de l'enfant unique en =
R=C3=A9publique=20
Populaire de Chine, 2006, Universit=C3=A9 de Gen=C3=A8ve, p. 22-28., =
cf.
- ^ a=20 b=20 Arthur E. Dewey, Assistant Secretary for Population, Refugees and = Migration=20 Testimony before the House International Relations Committee = Washington, DC=20 December 14, 2004 http://www.state.gov/g/prm/rls/39823.htm=20
- ^
- ^=20 "China Sticking With One-Child Policy." The New York Times, = March 11,=20 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/11/world/asia/11china.html<= /A>=20
- ^
=20- ^ See=20 Economic=20 and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific report "
- ^ See=20 China=20 Daily reportFamily=20 Planning Law and China's Birth Control Situation.=20
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B> See=20 Xinhua report
- ^<= /B> See=20 People's = Daily report=20 Wuhan sees negative population growth.=20
- ^=20 "First systematic study of China=E2=80=99s one-child = policy reveals=20 complexity, effectiveness of fertility regulation", = Today@UCI,=20 University of California Irvine, April 18, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-04-19. =
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>=20 [Pascal Rocha da Silva, La politique de l'enfant unique en = R=C3=A9publique=20 populaire de Chine, p. 116, cf. http://www.sinoptic.ch/textes/recherche/2006/200608_Rocha.= Pascal_memoire.pdf=20
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>=20 Naughton, Barry (2007)The Chinese Economy, USA: MIT Press=20
- ^<= /B>=20 Susan Greenhalgh. 2003. "Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's = One-Child Policy", Population and Development Review 29 (June): = 163-196.=20
- ^<= /B>=20 Therese Hasketh, Li Lu, and Zhu Wei Xing. 2005. "The effects of = China's=20 One-Child Family Policy after 25 Years", New England Journal of=20 Medicine, 353, No. 11 (September 15): 1171-1176.=20
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B> "
- ^<= /B>=20 Damien Mcelroy. "Chinese region 'must conduct 20,000 abortions'", = Telegraph,=20 2001-04-08.
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B> "
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>=20 Damien McElroy. "China is furious as Bush halts UN 'abortion' = funds",=20 Telegraph, 2002-
- ^<= /B>=20 Sichan Siv. "United=20 Nations Fund for Population Activities in China", U.S. Department = of=20 State, 2003-
- ^<= /B> See=20 a report by the Disabled People=E2=80=99s Association of Singapore
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B> "
- ^<= /B> "
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B> Dru=20 C. Gladney, "China's National Insecurity: Old Challenges at the Dawn = of the=20 New Millennium", Papers from "Asian Perspectives on the Challenges of = China",=20 Institute for National Security Studies, National Defense University, = March=20 2000.[2]=20
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>=20 See, e.g., Sara L. M. Davis, Song And Silence: Ethnic Revival on = China's=20 Southwest Borders (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), and = Dru C.=20 Gladney, "China's National Insecurity: Old Challenges at the Dawn of = the New=20 Millennium", Papers from "Asian Perspectives on the Challenges of = China",=20 Institute for National Security Studies, National Defense University, = March=20 2000.[3]=20
- ^ a=20 b=20 Coercive Chinese Birth Control Policy on Uyghurs in = Eastern=20 Turkistan=20
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>=20 www.unescap.org/ESID/psis/population/journal/1991/v06n4a1.pdf=20
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^<= /B>
- ^ a=20 b=20 http://www.chinanews.cn//politics/2007-07-08/37378.html=20 chinanews 07-08-2007 Over 1,900 officials breach birth policy in C. = China]=20
- ^<= /B>
=20- ^<= /B>
[edit]=20 Bibliography
- Better 10 Graves Than One Extra Birth, (ISBN= =20 1-931550-92-1, Laogai Research Foundation)
[edit]=20 External links
Categories: =
=
Chinese=20
numbered policies | Birth=20
control | Human =
rights=20
abuses | Demography<=
/SPAN> |=20
Population<=
/SPAN>
Views
Personal tools
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- Upload file =
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- Printable=20 version=20
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